Supplementary Cementitious Materials Improving Sustainability of Concrete

Dr. Supradip Das, Vice Chairman – CED 41 (BIS), discusses some innovative approaches being implemented in cement manufacturing and concrete for sustainable development.

 

cement manufacturing and concrete for sustainable development

Concrete is the second most consumed material after water in the world and cement is the key ingredient in making concrete. When a material becomes as integral to the structure as concrete, it is important to analyze its environmental impacts. India is committed to sustainable development in terms of reducing green house gas emission by 33-35% by 2030, and has already achieved 21% of its pledge to reduce emissions’ intensity.

Implementation of the Paris Agreement is essential for achieving Sustainable Development goals. It provides a roadmap for climate actions that will reduce emissions and build climate resilience. The construction industry is listed as the single largest global consumer of resources, and accounts for nearly 40% of carbon dioxide gas emission.

Materials that reduce CO2 emission

Supplementary cementitious materials are being used for making durable concretes and reducing CO2 emissions. Bio-fuels and alternative raw materials also reduce CO2 emission in cement production. The production of recycled aggregate from old concrete structures and its usage can have a major environmental impact in future programs for sustainable development.

Other innovative measures to reduce CO2 emissions during cement manufacturing include:

  • Use of waste heat as an alternative source of energy
  • CO2 capture and storage technologies (CCS)
  • Reduction of clinker to cement ratio
  • Use of alternative and biomass fuels
  • Use of alternative raw materials
  • Carbon Curing Process
  • Geopolymer
  • Reducing the material intensity of product
  • Reducing the energy intensity of products
  • Reducing toxic emissions
  • Enhancing material recyclability
  • Maximizing sustainable use of renewable resources
  • Extending product durability
  • Increasing service life of the product

A few climate-friendly alternatives to conventional cement have also been developed to reduce CO2 emission. These are Low Carbon Cement, Geopolymer Cement, Green Cement, Calcium Sulpho-Aluminate Cement (CASAL), Portland Limestone Cement, and the recently developed Calcium Carbonate Concrete and CO2-SUICOM cement.

Besides above, there are several innovative technology developed in the concrete industry such as carbon capture, storage & sequestration. Penetration of recycled CO2 into fresh concrete (carbon curing) & to reduce its carbon footprint without compromising performance. It was reported that the application of alternative additives/materials or techniques/systems can reduce up to 90% of CO2 emissions at different stages in the construction and building operations.

CO2 emissions at different stages in the constructionFigure 1 : CO2 emission from different phases in the construction industry

 

Adopting sustainable concrete production and usage

Adopting sustainable concrete production and usageFigure 2: Three spheres of sustainability

In a developing country like India, significant anthropocentric environmental impact comes from civil construction which plays a relatively larger economic role in the development of the country. Adopting sustainable concrete production and usage strategies not only reduces greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions but also decreases consumption of construction material, energy, and water. The last two commodities are likely to be in short supply in the days to come. Moreover, in developing countries, there is uneven and inadequate access to social and economic benefits (e.g., housing, roads, energy, etc.) for a substantial segment of the society. These countries will have to engage in large scale civil construction and energy production projects to improve living conditions. As a result, transitioning to a low carbon economy becomes more critical to sustain. Sustainability in construction industry means:

  • protection of the natural environment
  • choosing non-toxic materials
  • reduction and reuse of resources
  • waste minimization
  • life-cycle cost analysis.

The cement industry accounts for around 7% and the construction industry sector accounts for 35% of global CO2 emissions and generates between 45 and 65% of the waste deposited in landfills. In addition, the construction sector and its associated activities produce a significant amount of harmful emissions, namely, about 30% of greenhouse gases on the planet due to operations during the construction process; 18% of these emissions are caused by transporting and processing construction materials.

Sustainable development

Of late, the industry has made significant progress in reducing its CO2 emissions from cement production. The cement industry has reduced its carbon emissions by 19% since 1990. Besides utilizing Supplementary Cementitious Material (SCM) in reducing its carbon footprint, the role of mineral admixtures and the development of alternatives to conventional cement in concrete, needs to be seen.

Three spheres of sustainability

Sustainable development can be thought of in terms of three spheres: Environment, Economy & Society. This three-sphere framework was initially proposed by economist Rene Passet in 1979. It has also been worded as "economic, environmental and social" or "ecology, economy and equity".

This has been expanded by some authors to include a fourth pillar of culture, institutions or governance or alternatively reconfigured as four domains of the social – ecology, economics, politics and culture, thus bringing economics back inside the social, and treating ecology as the intersection of the social and the natural.

Impact of climate change

Within the construction industry, climate change has had a direct effect on the increase in the overall ambient temperature of jobsites around the country, the duration and intensity of the seasons, the predictability and ferocity of storms. According to the 2021 Global Status Report for Buildings and Construction published by the UN Environment Program (UNEP)-hosted Global Alliance for Buildings and Construction, the sector accounted for 36% of the global final energy consumption. The report said: "Since the signing of the Paris Agreement in 2015, CO2 emissions from the buildings and construction sector have peaked in recent years, and subsequently fallen to 2007 levels in 2020. This current decline is mostly due to the Covid-19 pandemic, whereas the transformative, long-term progress in sector decarbonising remains limited".

Cement & concrete – sustainability issues

It is generally agreed that the existing technology for production of cement is expensive, ecologically harmful, and energy intensive. Cement production is therefore not sustainable (unlike concrete), as it emits many toxic gases into the atmosphere, which causes environmental pollution and greenhouse gases. CO2 (a principal gas contributing to the “greenhouse effect). NOx and SOx are among the hazardous emissions generated in relatively high volumes by the conventional portland cement process.

At the current emission rate, the temperature may be increased by 1.50C by 2030, a limit set for the G7 countries and aspirational limit of the Paris Agreement, whereas concrete can be sustainable if these issues are considered. At the current production capacity level of 550 million tons, the carbon dioxide emission is around 6%. Sustainable development in cement & concrete can be achieved to a larger extent by adopting the following steps in concrete production.

  • Look for durability aspect
  • Use construction chemicals such as Superplasticizers for less cement & lesser quantity of water for same workability
  • Use Alternative Materials like Supplemen- tary Cementitious Material (SCM)
  • Use less cement
  • Use recycled aggregates from C&D waste

Durability

Durability of concrete may be defined as the ability of concrete to resist weathering action, chemical attack, and abrasion, while maintaining its desired engineering properties. The durability of concrete has a significant influence on the environment. The less durable it is, the shorter is the service life. The durability of concrete is therefore a function of the performance of concrete with respect to time. One of the main characteristics influencing durability of concrete is its permeability to the ingress of water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, chloride, sulphate, and other potential deleterious substances. Longer the service life is the better as earth’s natural resources are conserved. The challenge then is to produce concrete that is highly durable, and to use high-performance concrete as a building material for future construction.

The major causes of RCC to deteriorate in structures are “corrosion of the reinforcing steel, alkali-silica reaction and sulfate attack”. The mechanism of concrete expansion and cracking is highly dependent on a high degree of water saturation. Therefore, having a reliable waterproofing system is vital for enhancing the durability of concrete. Till recently, concrete with high volume of OPC was a normal practice in the construction industry. With the introduction of mineral admixture as supplementary cementitious material (SCM) in cement or in concrete as alternate raw material reduces the CO2 emission and ensures better performance and durability of the product.

The use of SCMs such as Pulverized Fly Ash (PFA) and Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBS), Rice Husk Ash (RHA) and Silica Fumes (SF) have been used for reducing the weight of cement in the concrete mixes to achieve the desired compressive strength of concrete. Various trial mixes have been used with partial substitution of cement with PFA and GGBFS and SF to achieve the desired high strength concrete for structural uses. The addition of the SCMs has reduced the cement proportion in concrete, thereby making it relatively sustainable. The results have been assessed on the basis of reduction in the embodied energy of the concrete.

Admixtures

The use of SCMs such as Pulverized Fly AshFigure 3: Fly Ash particle at 2000 X Magnification

Admixtures are now an essential component of modern concrete and their addition to cement and concrete facilitates optimised mix design, enhancing durability of the concrete. Admixtures in concrete are of two types: Mineral & Construction chemicals / additives. Both types are added during concrete mixing to enhance specific properties of the fresh or hardened concrete, such as workability, durability, or early and final strength. Mineral admixtures such as Fly ash, Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBS), Silica Fume, Metakaolin, Rice Husk Ash etc. (SCM) are usually added to green concrete or blended with cement or added to the concrete to enhance the performance of green concrete in terms of workability, to improve durability of concrete, to reduce thermal cracking in hardened stage, reduce alkali-aggregate reaction and sulfate attack. This blending also helps in reducing cement content in concrete. Supplementary cementing materials are a new concept which is being widely used as partial replacement of cement for making durable concretes and the resultant reduction in CO2 emission.

Types of SCMs

Fly Ash: This is a byproduct got from burning pulverized coal collected through mechanical collectors and electrostatic precipitators in Thermal Power Plants. As the fused material rises, it cools and solidifies into spherical glassy particles collected through electrostatic precipitator. Spherical glassy particles provide ball bearing effect (Fig 3) when used in a fly ash blended mix, thereby increasing its workability.

Fly ash chemically reacts with the byproduct calcium hydroxide released by the chemical reaction between cement and water to form additional cementitious products that improve many desirable properties of concrete. Compared to cement and water, the chemical reaction between fly ash and calcium hydroxide is slower, resulting in delayed setting of the concrete, and allowing better hardening. Delayed concrete hardening coupled with the variability of fly ash properties can create significant challenges for the concrete product. In India an area of 65000 acres of land is being occupied by ash ponds and its generation is expected to cross 235 million tonnes by 2024.

Ground Granulated Blast Furnace SlagFigure 4 : Morphology (SEM images) of GGBS grains


Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag: GGBS is a cementitious material that can be used as partial replacement of Portland cement in concrete. It is obtained by quenching the molten ash from iron and steel making blast furnace with the help of water. During this process, the slag gets fragmented and transformed into amorphous granules, which is then grounded to the desired fineness for producing GGBS. GGBS is highly cementitious and high in CSH (calcium silicate hydrate) – strength enhancing compound which improves the ultimate strength, i.e. the durability and appearance of the concrete. India produces around 11 million tons of GGBS annually, which is used entirely in the cement industry to make slag cement.

silica fume is an amorphous polymorph of silicon dioxideFigure 5 : SEM picture of a typical silica fume

Silica Fume: Also known as micro silica, silica fume is an amorphous polymorph of silicon dioxide. It is an ultrafine powder collected as a by-product of the silicon and ferrosilicon alloy production and consists of spherical particles with an average particle diameter of 150 nm. Because of its extreme fineness and high silica content, silica fume is a very effective pozzolanic material.

In recent years, a discernible shift in the construction industry in India has been marked by an increasing awareness among builders, contractors, and engineers on the many benefits of silica fume. One of the primary advantages driving this awareness is the remarkable improvement in concrete performance when silica fumes are incorporated. Builders and developers recognize its ability to significantly enhance the characteristics of concrete structures, making them better equipped to withstand various environmental stresses and ensuring a longer lifespan.

Silica fume is added to Portland cement concrete to improve its properties like compressive strength, bond strength, and abrasion resistance. These improvements stem from both the mechanical improvements resulting from addition of a very fine powder to the cement paste mix as well as from the pozzolanic reactions between the silica fume and free calcium hydroxide in the paste.

  • It also reduces the permeability of concrete to chloride ions, which protects the reinforcing steel of concrete from corrosion, especially in chloride- rich environments.
  • As a filler, micro silica decreases the average size of pores in the cement paste.

Rice Husk Ash & Metakaolin: RHA is produced by a combustion of rice husk at controlled temperature. Suitable incinerator/furnace as well as grinding method is required for burning and grinding rice husk in order to obtain good quality ash. Rice husk ash contains a high amount of silica.

RHA is produced by a combustion of rice husk at controlled temperature


Role of RHA in cement or concrete:

  • Reduced freezable water, superior quality
  • Gives strength to concrete
  • Reduces permeability since it is much smaller in size compared to cement particles
  • Reduces heat of hydration of concrete
  • Improves resistance to chloride and sulphate attacks.

In one of the studies, replacement levels were considered at 10%, 20%, 30%, and 40% by weight of cement. The durability performance of the RHA blended cement exposed to sodium sulphate solution found that concrete containing 10% and 20% of RHA replacements showed excellent durability to sulphate attack.

Metakaolin: It is formed when ordinary clay and kaolin clay are thermally activated. It is not an industrial by-product like the other admixtures. It is abundantly available and comparable to silica fume’s pozzolanic activity.

Calcium Carbonate: Calcium Carbonate Fines (CCF’s) are a limestone filler material that can help accelerate hydration of cement, leading to faster strength and improving durability of concrete. This hydraulic material can also provide better packing density in concrete, which can decrease permeability. Available in powder form, CCF’s are usually very light in color and can also provide aesthetic considerations for creating “white” structures.

Replacement Criteria of Different Mineral Admixtures in concrete as per BIS

  1. Fly Ash (FA) Low volume fly ash content : 10-30 % High volume fly ash concrete : around 50 % (IS: 1489 -1991: 10 – 25 %)
  2. Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBS) : 25 – 60 % ( IS: 455 - 1989)
  3. Silica Fume (SF) & Metakaolin (MK): 5 -10 % ( IS: 15388 – 2003)

Advantages of SCMs in cement or in concrete:

  • Economically viable
  • Result in energy savings. (less heat of hydration)
  • Improve workability as it depends on structure of SCM, its reactivity & specific surface
  • Improve extensibility
  • Reduce the alkali-aggregate reaction
  • Increase water tightness (impervious)
  • Increase strength
  • Less water demands
  • Discontinuous capillary pore system
  • Produce better quality of concrete with better finish
  • Reduce GHH emissionassociated with production of cement
  • Preserve natural resources
  • Rice husk ash gives strength to concret
  • Reduces permeability since it is much smaller in size than the cement particles
  • Reduces the heat of hydration of concrete
  • Improves resistance to chloride and sulphate attacks.

Chemical Admixtures: These are chemicals added in very small amounts to concrete to modify its properties while the concrete is still fluid, and also after it has hardened and is in service. Despite the relatively small dosage, the modifications to concrete properties achievable by admixtures can reduce the ECO2 of concrete, mainly through more effective use of the cementitious component, while maintaining and even enhancing the properties of concrete.

Essential component in concrete


The effect of admixtures on concrete properties includes:

  • To meet concreting requirement i.e. required water cement/ratio, the workability, minimum early & high ultimate strength
  • To provide modification in the mix design

Reducing the embodied carbon of concrete - because admixtures are used to both increase workability and reduce the water/cement ratio as low as 0.28, and reduction up to 30% for high strength concrete, controlling of bleeding and hence increase strength and reduce permeability of hardened concrete, without increasing cement content.

  • Reduction of cost of concreting operation
  • To improve quality of hardened concrete
    • Increase early & ultimate strength
    • Durability
    • MOE
  • To produce Flowing or Self Compacting Concrete The application of concrete admixtures and the advancement of admixture technology have promoted the development of numerous new concrete technologies in the past few decades, Some of them are ultra high performance concrete (UHPC) and Self Compacting Concrete (SCC). Retention of slump resulted in high durable concrete could be made possible with the addition of PCE based fourth generation superplasticizers. Nowadays, admixtures (mineral as well as chemical) have become an essential component in concrete as they play a significant role.

Recent Development Plans to Reduce CO2 Emissions There are several measures that can reduce CO2 emissions from the cement manufacturing process

  • Use of waste heat as an alternative source of energy
  • CO2 capture and storage technologies (CCS)
  • Reduction of clinker to cement ratio (95% to 73%)
  • Use of alternative and biomass fuels
  • Use of alternative raw materials
  • Carbon curing process
  • Development of Low Carbon Cement, Geopolymer Cement, Green Cement, Calcium Sulphoaluminate Cement (CASAL), Portland Limestone Cement, newly developed Calcium Carbonate Concrete, and many others.

Heating, ventilation and air conditioning systems (HVAC) regularly maintained and updated can help reduce a building’s carbon footprint and be efficient without using excess energy. Installing low energy humidifiers instead of electric steam ones also help.

C&D Waste

Construction and Demolition (C&D) waste consists of debris generated during renovation and demolition of buildings, roads and bridges. It is estimated that the construction industry in India generates about 10-12 million tons of waste annually. Processing and recycling of aggregate material from construction and demolition waste may reduce the demand-supply gap in both these sectors. The use of recycled waste in new concrete can have a major environmental impact in the future programs for sustainable development.

Present Status

BIS Revised IS: 383 and allowed to use of recycled aggregates

IRC brought out a new code IRC121-2017

CPCB brought out "Guidelines on Environmental Management of C&D waste.

Carbon Capturing & storage: Carbon sequestration is the process of capturing and storing atmospheric carbon dioxide. It is a method of reducing the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

Carbon Curing: The curing of concrete elements by diffusing carbon dioxide into it under controlled pressure and temperature is one of the popular methods of accelerated curing. The process lets the CO2 to diffuse into the concrete and undergo carbonation. The carbonation finally results in thermodynamically stable calcium carbonate products.

Conclusions

In this presentation, the environmental impact of cement manufacturing and concrete construction has been assessed on the basis of studies carried out.

The use of (SCMs) such as Pulverized Fly Ash (PFA) and Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBS), Rice Husk Ash (RHA), Silica Fumes (SF) and Metakeoline in combination with construction chemicals have shown excellent results for sustainable solutions and for reducing the weight of cement in the concrete mixes to achieve the desired performance and durability of concrete for use in construction projects.

The variety of materials being used as SCMs is large and diverse. Because of this, it is difficult to find “one size fits all” methods of characterizing this group of materials that will enable accurate prediction of performance in concrete. A sustainable solution for the global construction industry can be partial substitution of (OPC) by use of (SCMs) sourced from industrial end-of-life (EOL) products that contains calcareous, siliceous and aluminous materials. EOL materials include fly ash (FA), silica fume (SF), natural pozzolanic materials like sugarcane bagasse ash (SBA), palm oil fuel ash (POFA), rice husk ash (RHA), mine tailings, marble dust, construction and demolition debris (CDD).

Studies have revealed these materials to be cementitious and/or pozzolanic in nature. Their use as SCMs would decrease the amount of cement used in the production of concrete, decreasing carbon emissions associated with cement production. In addition to cement substitution, EOL products such as SCMs have also served as coarse and also fine aggregates in the production of eco-friendly concretes.

The construction industry has a larger role to play in sustainable development. The drive towards more Sustainable Construction is achievable only when all the stakeholders such as architects, planners, clients, builders and material suppliers recognize its importance. The Indian construction industry is on a fast track mode and recent efforts by BIS and other agencies towards using alternate construction material is expected to bring more sustainable concrete.

References

  1. Jian-Tong Ding and Zongjin L - Effects of Metakaolin and Silica Fume on Properties of Concrete by – ACI Materials Journal
  2. Fly Ash, Silica Fume, Slag & other Mineral byproducts in Concrete edited by V M Malhotra, SP-79, ACI publication.
  3. Mineral Admixture Hand book on Advanced Concrete Technology, Manish Mokal et.al 2.1 -2.17
  4. Sustainable development in the cement industry & blended cement to meet ecological challenges Konstantine Sobolev, European University of Lefke, Cyprus, The Scientific World Journal (2003) 3, 308-318
  5. Approach to Sustainable Development In Cement & Concrete, presentation by Supradip Das Indian Concrete Institute Ghaziabad centre 2021
  6. Superplasticizers for Concrete: Fundamentals, Technology & Practice V M Malhota et.al
  7. Achieving Sustainability in Construction, T R Nair, Ravindra Dhir et. Al.
  8. Approach to Sustainable Development In Cement & Concrete : Supradip Das, International UKIERI Concrete Congress : Sustainable Concrete Structure
  9. A Review of Carbon Footprint Reduction in Construction Industry, from Design to Operation, Banu Sizirici, Yohanna Fseha,1 Chung-Suk Cho,1,* Ibrahim Yildiz and Young-Ji Byon
  10. Supradip Das, presentation to ICI Ghaziabad Centre, ‘Approach to Sustainable Development In Cement & Concrete’, 2021
  11. Sustainable Development in Cement & Concrete : Supradip Das, National Symposium on Sustainability in Construction” ICI Prayagraj centre 2022
  12. A.A. Ramezanianpour, “Sustainable Development in Cement and Concrete”, Concrete Technology and Durability Research Center of Amirkabir University
  13. India- Silica Fume Market by Type, Source, and Application - Forecast and Analysis 2024-2028.
ICCT, July - August 2024

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